Grapes for wine making are grown in all the temperature zones on earth, as well as in many of the colder climates that are normally inhospitable to the often fragile vines; so strong is man’s inclination to make wine. The Bible reports that Noah’s first activity upon disembarking was to plant a vineyard to make his wines. So, it is natural that wine drinking has become a distinctive part of the culture of our western world.

The annual grape harvest today, the largest of any fruit, provides for nearly ten billion gallons of wine. That’s the equivalent of 12 bottles per person worldwide. One percent of the earth’s population is involved in the growing, vinifying and merchandising of wines. Great European nations such as Italy and France rely heavily upon wine economics.

The most famous growing regions, those with wines in general worldwide currency, are discussed in the following sections. A wine expert should be familiar with these regions, and possess a rudimentary knowledge of the agricultural distinctions of each. Often, when dealing with Bordeaux or California’s Napa Valley wines, the reputations and perceived values are the most important factors. The many international tasting sponsored by the industry prove again and again that beauty is in the eye of the beholder and that Chardonnays of the Sonoma or Pinot Noires of Oregon’s Willamette Valley will frequently emerge as the clear favorites. But, then, romance and public relatios are impotent factors in our choices of nearly every commercial product. A wine expert in the hospitality industry must evaluate constantly the

assets and the salability of wines of reputation.

Nearly all great wines of the world belong to a family of vines called Vitus vinifera - - the vine that makes wine. Over many centuries, wine producers have determined that the characteristics necessary for the making of great wines reside solely in this handful of vinifera types. This is not to demean or to reduce the staure or economic value of wines from native grapes, from other fruits, or hybrids developed to survive the more severe climates. Alert wine stewards should always carry and promote local wines - - from the exquisite rhubarb and bing cheery in Washington State to the captivating Scuppernong popular these many years in the Carolinas. It is to say, however, that the noble vinifer grapes form the taste standards, as well as the profit centers, in most restaurant wine lists. These are the grapes that must be evaluated, whatever their origin, to provide successful and profitable wine service.

This is a look at the average winemaker's schedule for an average year in the northern hemisphere.

With very little variation, commercial wines across the earth are made with a very high level of technical sophistication. As in all other areas of profitable human endeavor, engineering and science have taken over what was skill and lore passed from grandfather to grandson. There still is a wide measure of art since human taste must make the judgments, but very sound wines are made nearly everywhere because of technical sophistication. The whole alcohol enterprise is based upon the ecological cycle of grapes, the process by which natural grape sugars divide when catalyzed by airborne yeast cells. Sugar molecules are composed of equal parts of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. This natural separation of those parts is called fermentation. The fermentable juice from crushed grapes is called a must.

What makes wine making so successful and universal is the structure of the grape. When mature, there is about 23 percent natural grape sugar produced by photosynthesis in each grape. While grape juice has more vitamins and minerals than any other fruit or vegetable, these rich elements are suspended in an unusual concentration of water. When the skin is broken, the yeast cells easily migrate to all parts of the sugar-rich juices, converting all of the sugars. Since yeast cells split the sugar molecules in half {and feed off the vitamins, minerals and energy produced), there is approximately !!-!/2 percent alcohol in a naturally fermented table wine. This is sufficient alcohol to stabilize the fluid and to add substantially to its flavors. Fruit acids provide another important measure of taste and stability, as do the tannins and phenolic compounds which come from the skins in red wines.

So, there seems to be just the right amount of all of these natural elements to make a unique product. While wines are made from other fruits, seldom do they contain sufficient vitamins and minerals to support the yeast, nor do they contain the necessary water to make the wine. Wine is the only alcohol that was made in Creation, since it happens with or without man's intervention. And a wonderful, harmonious blessing it is. In fact, when you think of fermentation, think of an intricate classical symphony played by a huge orchestra with wine maker as conductor. At once, clashing and harmonizing, forming a coherent, melodious whole from many dissonances. Over 400 distinct chemical elements --including all the minerals necessary for the support of human life --have been isolated in grape musts. The variations in vitamin and mineral complexity in the vineyard soils, the prevailing heat, the intensity of the sun and its exposure to the vineyard, the amount of natural water or irrigation through a growing season, the age of the vines, and the varying skills of wine makers all contribute to a wine's individuality. That is why we seek out and compare the wide flavor variations in Chardonnays produced in Monterey, from the Finger Lakes in upstate New York, and from the Chablis area, of France, home base for all Chardonnay. That's what makes the wine tasting so endlessly fascinating and intriguing. The differences between vintages and geographic areas are both marked and remarkable.

There are three major classifications of wine depending upon the production methods. Table wine is by far the largest category and the most natural one. Table wines contain natural alcohol levels, up to 14 percent, and can be what the wine maker calls dry, without discernible sweetness; off-dry with just a trace of sugar; or medium-sweet, as are many rose and blush wines. The second category of production is sparkling or bubble-filled wines. Sparkling wines have some natural carbonation which occurs in a secondary fermentation. Wine is made and then fermented again from the introduction of sugar and yeast, capturing the new bubbles. The final category falls under the broad umbrella of dessert and aperitif wines. those very sweet types used after the meal, or the quite dry, like sherry, used before the meal.

The other wine-making processes are covered in later sections, but here's how red and white table wines differ in the natural, table-wine fermentation process.

1) Grapes are put in the crusher-stemmer to break skins and separate desired juices from undesired skins, pips, and seeds.

2) Free-run juice is captured and the remaining material goes to the wine press to extract the maximum amount of fermentable juices. Free-run and pressed juice --called musts now --are fermented apart and blended after fermentation and aging. The free-run juices produce the cleanest and best wines.

3) Musts go to fermentation, generally in cooled tanks which allow slow fermentation and fresh, fruity flavors. This may last from several days to several weeks depending upon the temperature of the fermenter.

4) Fermentation may be terminated early to retain specific levels of residual sugar as in Chenin Blanc, rose and other off-dry wines.

5) Centrifuging eliminates non-tasting solids and other fermentation materials.

6) Aging primarily in stainless steel, then bottling and another period of bottle aging take place before sending the wine to retail.

7) Blush wines made in this fashion from red-skinned grapes pick up a slight bit of color from the pressing operation.

I) Both the color and the astringency in red wines derive from exposure to skins and seeds during fermentation.

2) Following the crusher-destemmer, the must is pumped directly to fermentation tanks where skins may remain for several days of the week of ambient-air fermentation.

3) The fermenting wine is pumped over the floating cap of skins or the cap is punched with paddles to separate tannins and phenol concentra- tions necessary in great red wines.

4) The now-red colored wines are cleaned and racked of lees (dregs) before aging for one to many years in oak wood which adds new character and flavors to the wines. Further bottle aging of up to a year or more may occur before shipping to market.

5] Rose wines can be made by blending red and white wines, but generally are made with only about 12 hours on the skins to extract color without the bitterness.

Visits to wineries are fun and instructive. What the tourist finds, often as not, are pumps and hoses snaking around the floor from various wooden and steel tanks. The processes of clarifying, settling, blending and bottling wines take place in and out of these holding vessels.

The real aging generally occurs in warehouses, separated from the activity areas, where the wines can rest in wood for long periods in cool, dimly lighted caverns. This is because wine develops at its own schedule. Wines are often compared to children --different, cantankerous, unique and lovable. This aging was discovered first in Rome and then again in the Middle Ages when wood cooperage added new flavor that was not in the original wine.

Oak wood has tannin, vanillin, and the capacity to breathe through its own pores. Oak wood also has a life as these chemical elements dissipate through time. The narrow barrel sides may be shaved and returned to a more intense life, or they may be used as longer-aging vessels in which the mellowing takes decades as compared to years.

The cellaring and tracking of unique characteristics of particular lots of the same or similar wines are the job of the cellar master, a job of enormous importance to making finer wines. The men and women who tend these children through their irascible youth are skilled at recognizing the traits of great wines taking shape in the rough, indistinct, and closed-up years. Think of this important, labor-intensive background as you taste the selections prepared for this course. Think of the many individuals who have said yes or no along the way to making a superb bottle of wine.

Aging is most noticeably the process of the tannins in the wine reacting with other components until they are unable to stay in solution, where upon they become sediment (precipitation). While this is happening, the aromas of the grape are replaced by the bouquet of the aged wine (reductive aromas). At the same time, the color in the wine either lightens if it is a red wine (the anthocyanins - red pigments - bond to the sediment) or in white wine the color turns brown (oxidizes, just like a bite out of an apple - reds do this too, but it is harder to see).

So a hard, tannic red wine will, with luck, become softer in the mouth; less fruity, and more wood/leather in the nose, and generally more complex and full of nuance as it ages. An oaky white wine will become less fruity in the nose, more golden in color, and more complex and subtle in the taste (more caramel and less fruit flavors).

It is impossible to make general rules about how long any given wine will age. For example, while it is certain that many Cabernet Sauvignons will indeed age 5-7 years, there are plenty that will not age at all (the fruitier, less expensive styles) and more that will age for decades (the richer, more expensive selections).

The factors that allow a wine to age are quite complex, but here are a couple of rules of thumb:

The wine must have a fairly high level of Tannin to age at all.

All the tannin in the world is no good if the wine has no Acidity to keep it fresh tasting.

Acidity and tannin are all well and good, but it is fruit that makes wine taste good, and if there is not enough fruit in the wine, then when it ages it will taste like nothing.

The fuller a wine in all 3 of these components, the longer it will age.

The tannins can either come from the grapes themselves (skins and seeds) or (especially in the case of white) from being aged in wood, usually oak. Grape tannins are more subtle, but often as strong, and rarely as astringent (mouth drying) as oak tannins. Grape tannins are better than oak when it comes to aging, hence grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon, with thicker skins, tend to have better aging potential.

The acidity, while it can be added (illegal in many parts of the world), like the fruit, primarily comes from the grape itself. Acidity can be balanced in the winemaking process, but the best vintages have a perfect balance of tannin, fruit and acidity, in the grape itself.

More generalities: Cab ages best. Pinot ages surprisingly well, if it is a great Pinot. Chardonnay, when it is oaky, not only ages, but really needs a few years to even out. Merlot needs high levels of Cab in the blend to age well, Syrah rarely ages particularly well, except for true Rhones.

Keep your wine at 55F in order to age it. Wine ages more quickly at 70F+ but the resulting product is less complex, so you could say that wine actually falls apart faster at 70F than at 55F. Keep your wines at a level 55F and they will age slowly and perfectly.

The most important way to tell if your wine is ready to drink is to taste a bottle. This seeming paradox is one of the best reasons to buy wine by the case.

Red Bordeaux 3 to 20 years White Bordeaux (dry) 1 to 5 years White Bordeaux (sweet) 3 to 20 years Red Burgundy 3 to 7 years White Burgundy 2 to 5 years Red Rhone 2 to 6 years Rhine & Mosel 2 to 15 years

The bottom line on all table wines is personal judgment --first in the selection and aging by the wine maker, second in the decision by the distributing enterprise to carry and promote, and, finally, in selection by the consumer. Everyone is making judgments, often at cross-purposes" and everyone is right. Many consumers are offended at the thought of a light, flowery and perfectly delightful Vouvray because it contains a hint of natural sweetness. The vast majority of American consumers delight in just that level of sugar in their wines. There is no accounting for taste, only the sensible service of it by alert restaurant personnel.

Sparkling and dessert wines are discussed in later sections, but it is

necessary to say a word about distilling to understand how aperitif and dessert wines are processed.

Both dessert and sparkling wines are processed naturally, but they are manipulated during various stages to create specific gustatory effects. Of course, everyone loves the sparkle or bubbles that are generated from a secondary fermentation. But, distillation of wine must occur to process aperitif and dessert types.

Distillation is nothing more than applying heat to a substance to extract an essence. Distillation is used in making cosmetics, cooking oils, gasoline and a wide range of commercial products. The technique was

.applied to wines and beers rather late --into the 9th century after Christ --even though it had been used for many centuries for other products. The distillate from heating wines is called brandy.

In distillation, wine is heated to boiling at which time vapors rise and are expelled through a cooling coil which reverts the steam to liquid. Since alcohol vaporizes at more than forty degrees less than does water, the desired alcohol is separated first from the wine.

Aperitif (or appetizer) and dessert wines have brandy added to stabili'ze the wine, to provide a complexity to balance their strong herbal and sugar components, and to add long shelf life. This formerly was called fortifying, and they were called fortified wines.

Because of the popularity of this category and the popularity of brandy itself, distillation of wine occurs in nearly every country that makes wine.

There is much lore and tradition in wine packaging. Bottles are generally tinted to deflect the harmful ultraviolet rays of sunshine which will lessen the quality as surely in wine as they do in beers.

Glass bottles were introduced in the 16th century, but bottle machines transformed the industry at the turn of the century. Wine generally has been resistant to the plastic, metal and boxed container revolution that has taken hold for other popular beverages though several nations (Australia as an example) now consume a majority of their common drinking wines from several-liter, plastic-lined boxes. The efficiency is high" but the romance is low.

Other traditions such as the shoulder-necked bottle in Bordeaux, the brown-colored tall bottle in the Rheinhessen, and the sloped neck of Burgundy are giving way to standards and convenience. The handwoven, straw-wrapped Italian specialties have given way to economics.

Labels differ from country to country, but there are always keys to quality. "Produced and Bottled by" tells you that the winery actually made the wine. This is important since the vast majority of popularly priced wine is shipped around in tank cars from one producer to another, much like gasoline. So, "Made and Bottled", or "Cellared and Bottled" indicates that the majority of the product was purchased from another vintner. The reputation of the company is the most important of all label factors; the winery should produce consistent, sound wines in relation to their retail pricing.

The year on the bottle assures the consumer that the wine originated in that single year's harvest. This identification is particularly important with European vintages where the harvests often vary in quality from year to year. Vintage charts are available for all European countries grading, in a general way, each harvest.

Acidity

The tart taste in wines. When there is too much acidity the wine can taste sour.

Aftertaste

The taste that stays in your mouth after swallowing the wine. It should be pleasant and in fine wines it should last a long time after the wine is gone.

Aloxe-Corton (ah-loks cor-tawn)

A wine producing village in Burgundy. Famous for both great reds and whites. The best reds are Corton (with or without additional names) and the famous white is Corton-Charlemagne.

Alsace (al-zass)
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A French province that makes some of the finest dry white wines in the world, many from grapes people assume are sweet, such as Riesling and Gewurztraminer .

Appellation d'Origine Controlee (ah-pel-ah-s'yawn daw-ree-jeen cawn-trohl-lay)
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The designation for wines of better quality from France. It is in fact a set of rules that dictate the grape variety, the minimum alcohol and other quality factors, for the given wine from a region. This phrase (with or without d'Origine, and often abreviated to AOC) can be found on most bottles of exported French wine.

Aroma

The smell of a young wine. Different from bouquet, in that Aroma is the smell that comes from the grapes, and bouquet, which takes time to develop, is the smell that comes from the finished wine.

Astringent

That mouth puckering feeling that some wines give you. Related to, and usually caused by tannins.

Auslese (ouse'-lay-zuh)
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A German term for "Select Harvest". Wines with this designation are slightly sweet and luscious. Don't be afraid of these wines, they are often great with food, and rarely expensive.

Ausone, Chateau (oh-zon)
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One of the greatest Bordeaux wines, too often overlooked by consumers. Because it is in St.-Emilion it has a higher proportion of Merlot, and the resulting wine is more elegant than some others of its class.

Balance

A much used, but rarely defined term in wine tasting. A wine is said to be balanced when no single component is overwhelming the wine, and the overall impression is pleasing.

Barolo (bah-roh'-lo)
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One of the top Italian wines. Made from Nebbiolo grapes in the Piedmont it is often long lived and heavy when young.

Beaujolais (bo-jo-lay)
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A wine producing district just south of Burgundy, in France. The red wines from the region are made from Gamay, and are typically light and fruity. Beaujolais Nouveau (noo-vo) is an early released style of this wine, that is sold with more fan fair and hoopla than the wine deserves, it is released the third Thursday of November.

Beaune (bone)
The quaint little walled city is the unofficial capital of the Burgundy wine trade. The surrounding wine area, in fact the entire southern Burgundy, is referred to as the Côte de Beaune.

Beerenauslese (bear'-en-ouse'-lay-zuh)
Literally "Select Berry Picking" in German. The English term is "Individual Berry Select". Tiny scissors are used to cut just the most perfectly ripe berries (grapes) from the cluster. The grapes must have no less than 125 degrees Oeschsle (about 30% ) sugar. The resulting wine usually is somewhat sweet (average of about 6% residual sugar) with great flavors and amazing complexity. This is one of the wor'd's finest styles of wine. It is a great match for spicy foods of all sort.

Bernkastel (bairn'-cast'l)
Another of the world's greatest "cute little wine towns". This one is situated on the Mosel River in Germany. The most famous wines of Germany, Bernkastler Doctor are grown on the steep hillsides overlooking the river. The Doctor vineyard has a perfect southern exposure, important in these chilly northern vineyards.

Beychevelle, (bay'sh-vel)
A Fourth Growth Bordeaux (France) wine from the commune of Saint-Julien. The exceptional quality of this producer has propelled its fame beyond its rank. Alas, the price is as high as its reputation.

Bitter
Wine tasting term for the sensation in the finish of a wine. This is different than astringency (q.v.) which is a dry feeling in the mouth. Bitterness is very hard to spot, and it is rare, an undesireable in wine. As well the taster gets used to the bitterness quickly, so the taste goes away after a few sips.

Blanc de Blanc (blahn duh blahn)

"White from white" in French. The term is applied to white wines made from white grapes. Mainly used in Champagne to denote wines made entirely from Chardonnay.
Blanc de Noirs (blahn duh n'wahr)

"White from black" in French. The term is applied to white wines made from red (black) grapes. Mainly used in Champagne to denote wines made entirely from Pinot Noir.

Blending
Blending is perhaps the most important tool of the wine maker. While chemistry and science often have a hand in the final blend of a wine, more often than not it is a tasting that determines the final ratios. Like a chef seasoning a sauce, the winemaker adds a little of this, and a little of that, until the wine resembles that winemaker's idea of perfection.

There are several types of blending:

Some wines, like Chateauneuf de Pape, Cote Rotie, Chianti, and Champagne, can be made from a blend of red and white grapes. Similarly Rose Champagne is often given that nice pink color, with the addittion of red wine (Pinot Noir). [Note: Rose, or "Blush" wines are made pink by pressing red grapes very carefully and ending up with a pink wine.]

Other wines, like Bordeaux are blends of the same color. In the case of Bordeaux, the grape variety Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot (primarily) are blended, in order to add the character of each grape to the final wine.

Even wines of a single variety are (or should be) blended. In this last case, wines that have been vinified seperately (refered to as 'lots') are blended together. This blending may come from the simple necessisty of having more grapes to vinify than can fit into a single tank or barrel, or the blending may be carried out in order to create a specific style of wine. At the highest quality level, individual vineyards are vinified seperately, each adding their own character to the final blend, with the remaining wine declassified and sold as a lesser wine.

How does one convey something as personal as a taste impression; not the chemical content of a substance, but the flavors and sensations that the taster is reminded of? Many wine tasters have resorted to using anthropomorphic terms such as aggressive, clumsy, gutsy and precocious.

While it is tempting to use such terms, if for no other reason than they are comfortably familiar, they assign qualities to wine that it can not possess, and so they are vague, meaningless words.

Many wine tasters use wonderfully poetic but difficult to observe adjectives, listing a multitude of fruits and flowers. Unfortunately these trace sensations in wine are always subjective and any two tasters may not agree on their presence.

What then is the best approach to choosing words to describe wines? The French, to no one's surprise, tend towards the poetic. Peynaud the French Enologists, says "There are hundreds of ... possible images, depending on the poetic ability of the taster". He also says "There are circumstances where a little fantasy is appropriate". Not to give the impression that Peynaud does not have a pragmatic side, he follows his fantasy statement with "Do not over do it".

As can further be surmised the American Enologist Amerine is almost completely pragmatic. His approach dictates that no word should be used that does not directly correspond to a chemical compound. Amerine writes "... we would make a plea for less fanciful terms than those so often found in the popular and trade press". He continues "Unfortunately, existing wine terminology abounds in words and phrases that have little or no clearly definable meaning with respect to the sensory evaluation of wines." Amerine along with Roessler go on to list an invaluable collection of wine words and their meanings (including their chemical equivalents). They also list over 200 words not to use.

I personally try to strike a balance between these two approaches. I do not use flowery language that may not represent universal interpretations. I keep my stable of wine terms to a minimum, and with any luck at all I convey the sense of the wine without getting caught in the trap of describing the taste of the wine.

My own vocabulary evolves, and so should yours. We all start out using the simplest expressions and watch our phrases become increasingly more precise. I went through a period where like Amerine, I would only use the most exacting words. No doubt many of you will sympathize with this. Coming full circle I now try to use only those expressions that are truly common denominators, that we can all relate to.

The "fruit basket syndrome" is very common. Many wine writers like to evoke the names of specific fruits, where as I prefer to be vague. Instead of raspberries and blackberries, I just say berries. I take this approach so that my readers don't feel inadequate for tasting something that may never have been there.

A great example is the banana vs. strawberry debate. Some people smell bananas in Beaujolais, some smell strawberries. It turns out that the scents are not as dissimilar as you might think. There are only a few compounds that are different at the molecular level, and blindfolded some people can't tell them apart (honest, try it).

Another time to mention a specific scent or flavor is when there is wide spread agreement on the term. Currants in Cabernet Sauvignon, and cherries in Pinot Noir come to mind.

Some specific terms such as buttery pose their own problems. The butter taste and smell in wine is directly attributed to the presence of diacetyl. Diacetyl is a byproduct of the malo-lactic fermentation, and as such its presence relates to a very specific technical process. To say diacetyl is much more exact, and it speaks of the process that the wine was made by; however the average consumer would much rather think that there is butter in their wine than some chemical.

The colors of wine is a treatise in themselves. White wine ranges in color from colorless through the yellows, the golds and into the brown hues. Red wine goes from purple, to red, to orange or brick. The color of the wine gives some very definite clues as to its state of maturity. For white wines golden hues show age. In reds it is the orange hues that show the age.

The fault that I am most guilty of is in using words and terms that I have made up. To my defense the terms seem to be easy to understand. Beaujolaised, being like Beaujolais, is a prime example. Anyone that has had Beaujolais will recognize the quality that makes it unique. If you haven't had Beaujolais the term is meaningless.

Another crime of winespeak that I perpetrate is the use of "bright" or "dark" to describe flavors. I feel that this concept is universal, at least to a degree. Citrus and pineapple are "bright", mushrooms and beef are dark.

'American Oak' almost always means Tennessee white oak. 'French Oak' is almost alway either Limousin or Nevers. The reason that the French oaks have famous names is that they are from very special forests.

The tight grain and water tightness required to make good wine barrels has another, once critical, and now nearly forget use. It is used to make ships. The Limousin and Nevers forests were planted by the French Admiralty for the express purpose of building navy vessels. It is one of life's happy coincidences that the decline of wooden boats occured at about the same time that the modern wine industry in France was on the rise.

French oak is denser, with less gallic and vanillic acids. The latter, vanillic acid is what gives oaky wines that vanilla taste. For the organic chemists in the crowd, vanillic acid is a benzoic acid, and vanillin is a benzaldehyde. Gallic acid gives the wine an astringent character, both of these acids are more present in American oak.

French oak is subtle are flavorful, American oak is rich and intense. While the choice of oak is somewhat subjective, it is clear that some grapes are better suited for one variety or another (but that is another discussion).

Yugoslavian oak (I suppose it has a new name now, but I have not heard another term used) is another, and less pricey oak. It is popular in Italy and eastern Europe.

Oak is not the only wood used for wine. Redwood for example, was very popular until quite recently, in California. Woods other than oak are almost always chosen for their neutral qualities.

I hear this question more than any other.

The temperature to drink wine at is one of those personal preferences that too often is espoused as fact.

I personally tend to drink all of my dry wine directly out of the cellar. Red wines warm up quickly in the glass, and the evolution of flavors is fun to observe. For white wines I use a chilled marble cooler to keep the wine cool, but not cold.

For Champagne or sparkling wine I refrigerate the wine for several hours and then keep it around 40 degrees by keeping it in ice (but no water in the bucket).

Sweet wines I like very cold, so I chill them in salted ice water (it only takes them about 5 minutes to cool if they were previously in the cellar). I keep the sweet wine in the freezing brine mixture to keep it as cold as possible.

What is more certain is to not let any wine become too warm. A red wine as cool 80F degrees will taste noticeably alcoholic. White wine is more delicate and therefore has less to disguise the alcohol and other less pleasant aspects of the wine, and so is more easily enjoyed when it is actually cooler that 60F. Sweet wines paradoxically, can actually be served quite warm (as Ports and other fortified wines are). I prefer my sweet white wine to be very cold, but they do not have as much alcohol to interfere with the flavor, and the residual sugar masks pretty much everything else.

Experiment to find your own preferences, but don't stress on finding the exact correct temperature. No matter what you decide on there will always be an expert (other than myself) that will disagree with you.

General  

General

A. Leading a group through an extended series of tastings is ambitious, but lots of fun. Beware of the Summer months, it is much easier to keep a group together when the days are short and the nights are cold.

All tastings should be blind. If you have everyone bring a bottle (remember, 3 flights of 3 wines each, for a total of 9 wines, is the ideal tasting [and 15 people are max, 10 is better]) make sure they cover the label and remove the capsule before anyone else can see the wine. My group often decants the wine into Evian bottles, because we are pros, and the slightest hint starts us guessing.

Avoid food at tastings unless the focus of the tasting is food and wine pairings. Make sure you have something to eat for after the tasting. My casual (as opposed to professional) tasting group brings a pot luck dinner for after the tasting.

I would recommend that for the first year your tastings be primarily about recognizing varietal character in wines. So make the tastings specific to one type of grape variety. Don't be afraid to repeat some varietals, especially those that range across a huge amount of prices, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay.

The is especially important for US wine tasters, because it is how our wine is labeled.

Once everyone has a fairly good grasp of the varietal character it is time to move on to regional character. Again taste all one varietal, but now start highlighting regions around the world that grow the same grape variety. Cabs are a great example of this. You can do dozens of tasting using Cab based wines alone. As your group becomes more comfortable with tasting, narrow your scope. Instead of Cabs of the world, do Bordeaux regions, or Alexander Valley vs. Napa, that sort of more local geographical range.

Germany and Burgundy will require more tastings than you could hope to hold, so make sure to throw one in now and then.

Once your group has varietals and geography pretty well down (they don't have to be experts, just understand the differences), start doing tastings where you guess the variety and regions of the wines. Not only will this put you in the big leagues of tasting, but it will sharpen each of your pallets to perfection.

All told, expect it to take 4 years of tasting (6 tastings or so a year - 12 sounds good but chances are you may have trouble getting a group together that often) before you settle down to the "guess this wine" stage.

My wine school accelerates this schedule down to a 2 week intensive training, with the same 24 tastings or so. The school has the advantage in that there is not a long period of time between tastings. So not only do I cram 4 years of training into 2 weeks, a great deal more can be learned.

1) "White wine with white flesh, Red with red"- is at the very least, antiquated.

2) If a very simple rule of thumb needs to exist it would be better off saying "White with Light and Red with Rich". Preparation and sauce are more important than what is being cooked with Game being a notable exception.

3) Oil and vinegar. The acid of the vinegar cuts the unctuousness of the oil and vice versa. Apply this to wine and you end up with acidic wines like Pinot Noir with oily foods like salmon. This principal is very important and is one of the least touted by others.

4) Food and wine, like wine itself is a balance (much like life). Although in this case opposites do balance such as a lightly sweet white (i.e. Auslese, LH Chenin Blanc, etc...) with very spicy food of any type, never underestimate pairing similar flavors. Pinot Noir stands up quite well to lemon, no doubt the high acids in each are complementary.

5) Match flavors. This is so simple that it is often overlooked. The grapefruit/citrus taste of Sauvignon Blancs goes with fish as well as and for the same reason that lemon does.

6) Avoid wines that are predominated by non-food flavors. Oak is not a taste you expect to find in food. Save oaky wines for fireside chats and other non food events.

7) Don't be afraid of a little sugar. Most Americans love sweetened ice tea and other 'soft drinks'. A slightly sweet wine, be it California Gewurztraminer, a German Spatlese, or an Anjou from the French Loire, is sure to be a crowd pleaser when served with the right food (say acidic or hot food).

8) Never pair a wine with any food that is sweeter than it. This makes the term Dessert Wine to be a misnomer. Most sweet wines are best enjoyed after dessert.

Some swear by Chocolate and Cabernet Sauvignon, which violates this rule. Try it for yourself sometime (and then try a Black Muscat like Quady's Elysium).

9) Above all other considerations, drink wine to enjoy it and the company you are sharing it with. Food and wine pairings are elusive and to some degree mythical. Drink wine you like with food you like, but never stop experimenting.

1. Match the weight of the food with the weiht of the wine. Heavy food requires heavier wine and lighter foods require lighter wines. Salmon, an oily fish with faily strong flavor, needs a wine with full body, while something as lean and delicate as sole welcomes a lighter, more acidic wine.

A heavy Cabernet Sauvignon would destroy a dish of thinly sliced veal with a lemon and artichoke sauce, just as a beef ragout would make a delicate Chenin Blanc taste like watered-down soda pop.

2. Consider the method of preparation. If you sauté a fish in butter or oil, you'll be adding additional, richness, and a heavier wine might be in order. If you steam the fish, however, a lighter wine would work. Grilling also gives the food additional flavor, calling for a fuller-flavored wine. A squirt of lemon on the fish tends to cut some of the richness, allowing for a more delicate wine.

3. Consider the other major ingredients in the dish. Is extra weight being added by the sauce? Flour-based sauces, rarely used today, make the food appear heavier, as do butter and cream. Sauteed tuna in a caper-cream sauce will be heavier, than tuna topped with vinaigrette of olive oil and capers.

Aside from the "basic characteristic of the fruit, most wines are made in many styles, and wine-making techniques determine whether they are lighter in style or heavier, have more or less fruit, tannin, sugar, or acid. (All the structural elements go into determining weight.) You will find that as far as weight is concerned, either a red or white wine often will work with the food. A well-formed Sauvignon Blanc can have the same weight as a 1light Pinot Noir, while a medium-bodied Chardonnay will have much the same weight as an elegant Cabernet Sauvignon.

4. The next consideration is the predominant seasoning used in your recipe --whether the food is spicy, aromatic, pungent, or acidic. This is perhaps' the most tricky element, in the blend.

Spicy flavors from chile peppers tend to unbalance wine and bring out

strange characteristics. As an experiment, try a meat dish spiced with jalapenos with several wines such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and a fruity Sauvignon Blanc with softer acids. Generally, you will find that the spiciness of a Pinot Noir will be accentuated, causing a fire in the mouth which will be quelled if the fruit is ripe. Chardonnay often tastes sour, especially if the wine was barrel fermented. If the Sauvignon Blanc is acidic and lean, the spice will be accentuated, but if the fruit is ripe and full ,it will help quell the heat. That's why wines with ripe fruit or extra sweetness (Johannisberg Riesling, Gewurztraminer, and Chenin Blanc) are often recommended for the spicier Asian foods. The combination of the fruit and sugar helps coat the palate and kill the fire of the spice.

5. Once you've considered questions of seasoning, you're well on your way to matching. At this point you should try to mentally taste the dish as you think about wine. What does the thought of saffron cream sauce on the veal do to your mouth? Try to feel the delicate texture of the meat, the rich mouth-coating component of sauce, and the sweet, grassy character of the saffron. A medium-bodied Chardonnay might work well.

What about poached salmon with a lime-tarragon vinaigrette? The fish is oily, which generally would call for a heavier wine; however the acid in the vinaigrette helps cut that heaviness, so a lighter wine would probably work. Then there’s the slightly sweet anise flavor of the herb; perhaps a ful-bodied Sauvignon Blanc, or a Clean-crisp Chardonnay would match.

What about confit duck with lentils? The meat is rich from being cooked in the fat. It's also strongly flavored with garlic and salt. The lentils add a substantial texture, which also works to quell some of the harsher elements of the seasonings. A spicy Pinot Noir a velvety Merlot would work well.

6. The last important element is to determine whether you want a wine that contrasts or complements the food. Top complement the flavors in an asparagus frittata, for example, you might choose a Sauvignon Blanc, because the grassy flavors in the wine would pick up the vegetable flavors in the, frittata. To contrast you might choose a fragrant and slightly sweet Johannisberg Riesling.

If you match a wine to chicken in a lemon-butter sauce, a rich Chardonnay'" would complement and carry on the buttery flavors in the sauce, or you could choose a powerful Sauvignon Blanc with good acids to cut away the richness of the butter sauce. ,

What follows is a brief description of the major varietals and the foods and herbs that complement" them.

The sweetness in the wine overshadows all other factors in matching sweet wines with desserts. Many people choose to contrast Champagne with sweet desserts. However, in most cases the wine tastes flat and "grassy," making it hardly worth the $20 to $100 cost of a good bottle of Champagne.

While you need to briefly consider flavor (an Orange Muscat, for example, will have totally different flavors from a Sauternes) the most important factor is sweetness. To properly show off the wine, the dessert should be less sweet than the wine. Sugary desserts will unbalance the blend, destroy the subtle nuances, and make the wine taste alcoholic. Simple berries, lightly sweetened cakes, and fruit sauces are generally the safest bets.

Dessert and aperitif wines are differentiated by the addition of high- proof brandy at some time during fermenting or in aging to stabilize and preserve the wines from deterioration. Fluids with over 14% alcohol in concentration simply are not subject to bacterial or other normal spoilage. They are pickled. These classical specialty wines formerly were called fortified wines. The added brandy alcohol literally fortified their natural alcohol levels above the maximum 14 percent alcohol permissible for table wines. The Wine Institute lobbied the term out of the wine lexicon to raise the image of the category despoiled by winos who, following Repeal, drank inexpensive dessert wines for their alcohol content. Despite this change in language, most people still use the fortified term.

This category is subdivided by use, before and after the meal. Aperitif or appetizer wines are generally drier and are sometimes "aromatized" with flavorful, appetite-stimulating herbs. Dry and cocktail Sherries also serve the appetizing hour. The dessert wines are generally rich in sugar, so much so that dinner would be spoiled by their consumption.

Brandy is the spirit produced by distilling grape wine. Therefore, adding brandy back to a wine is akin to strengthening the essence of the wine itself. Many dessert wines have their brandy added during the fermentation at a point when the desired sugar level has been reached. The extra alcohol kills the yeast and terminates the fermentation. Port and Tokay are made this way. As an example, many Port wines are sold at twelve percent sugar. When brandy is added above 14 percent, the fermentation ceases at just that right level.

There is little historical doubt that brandy was the first distillate, but no historical proof. Brandy was the first licensed liquor. A firm was

awarded the license by the French government in the Ilth century. By that time, crude home stills were at use throughout Europe. The apothecary was observed making this fiery medicine just so long before the practice spread to the home artisan.

Since dessert wines are made wherever grapes are grown, brandy is also produced both for that purpose and as a spirituous beverage. Grape and other fruit brandies are common through Europe and the Near East.

Incomparable Jerez The most famous, the most exquisite and complex of the category are the Sherries from the Andalusia in Southern Spain. Sherry's home base is the town of Jerez de la Frontera in the province of Cadiz. When the Moors occupied the area, they called the city Sherisch, and the name stuck.

In Andalusia, the sun shines brightly and the people are both gregarious and happy. They dress in flaming colors and patronize the bullfights. This is a most romantic land. One thing the Moors added in their long stay [ was a love for agriculture. Despite their ban on consumption, they not only allowed but abetted the traditional viticulture with science and commerce. By 961, they had promulgated farming codes that are followed to this day.

The first key to Sherry wines lies in the intense, burning heat in the growing season and the durable, thick-skinned Palomino grape which accounts for 90 percent of the harvest. The remaining harvest is in a sweet grape called Pedro Ximenez. The second key lies in a native type of yeast which has been named flor, Spanish for flower, which collects and thrives in flower-like patterns on top of already fermented wines. This yeast conducts an acerbic secondary fermentation that concentrates flavors unlike any other wine. This flavor appears only one other place on earth --in the Jura mountains in eastern France. Since this region traditionally shipped sweet dessert wines to the cold climate countries of northern Europe, the flavor yeast provided an early service by concentrating the alcohol, and thereby helping to preserve the wines. With the addition of the brandy-making process passed on by the Arabs, Sherry-wine makers were fortifying their wines as early as the 10th century.

The Ultimate Blended Wine

The solera aging system provides the third key for Sherry wines. In solera aging, the new wines are entered into a criadera, or new wine, level and gradually work their way down each succeeding year until they are finally taken from the bottom, or solera, level for bottling and sale. Therefore, Sherries are always blends, and they are always an intermingling of fluids from many, many years. Theoretically, some molecules may be dozens of years old before being drawn for sale.

The Fino is the driest of those fine wines, almost like a full-bodied, oak-aged Chardonnay, so spare and delicate are its flavorings. At the other end of the spectrum are the Olorosos which equate to California Cream Sherries with upwards of ten to twelve percent sugar by volume. Often the Finos are but lightly fortified to retain their vinosity. A special Fino is called Manzanilla and it originates near the sea in Sanlucar de Barra- meda. Both Manzanilla and flor Finos are common in better bars in the U.S.

Amontillado is a darker, firmer Sherry with slightly more alcohol than the Finos. This wine travels well and is in great demand allover the world. The special flavorings that derive from the flor fermentation are said to be nutty, that is they are more reminiscent of almonds or pecans than other foods. Really, this is an aldehyde flavoring which comes from the break- down of the wine in the fermentation and aging periods. But, it is unique to Sherry.

Sherry wines are produced abundantly across the face of the earth in many wine countries. California producers make Sherry both in the flor/solera system and by use of large baking tanks which produce a similar aldehydic nuttiness in flavoring. The flor yeasts must be imported to California and elsewhere and induced to operate out of their natural habitat. California Sherries tend to be heavier and fuller flavored than the delicate Spanish Finos, but each type has its audience. Of all the fortified category, Sherry has the brightest future in the U.S. because of the spread of Tex/Mex cuisine and tapas hors d'oeuvre at these restaurants.

Domestic producers of Sherry tend to follow a rough gradation of sugar content similar to sparkling-wine makers. The dry or cocktail versions range around the one percent residual sugar level. This is the threshold for tasting sugar. Golden Sherries hover around three percent, with the Cream Sherries at ten or more percent sugar.

The proper Sherry service is in the traditional long-stemmed, tulip- shaped, 6-ounce glass. Sherries are best served at room temperature since chilling detracts from their flavors. The dry or cocktail Sherry from American producers, or the Fino, Manzanilla or Amontillado are all ideal with appetizers. They add zest and excitement to this period without dampening the appetite.

Similarly, the Olorosos and Cream Sherries are served at room temperature, and usually with other desserts. Cream Sherry is a magnificent complement to vanilla ice Cream, and may be mixed into the ice Cream and refrozen for a tantalizing dessert combination. Familiar Spanish Sherries are Gonzalez- Byass, Duff Gordon, Fundador, Don Tomas and Harvey. American Sherries

include Taylor and Gold Seal from the East Coast, Christian Brothers, Paul Masson, Inglenook and Gallo from California.

In wine making, Portugal is a land of extremes --extreme changes in weather patterns, climate, soils and in types of wines produced. It is hard to imagine any set of wines more opposite in composition and style than Port and Vinhos Verdes. Still, there are over 300 million gallons of wine sold from that small country each year. Portugal also has a familiar governmental commission called the Appellations Controlees which oversees fourteen producing areas including the Douro in which Port wine is made.

Port is named for the seaport of Oporto where the wines are aged and shipped. For vineyards of sheer pictorial beauty, the Douro is unmatched. The vineyards in the upper Douro region are called quintas and they are literally carved out of the hillsides, and terraced to the last precipitous level to achieve the maximum acreage. Without these terraces, the precious topsoil would have washed down into the river centuries ago.

In 1703, by the Treaty of Methuen, Dutch-born King William of England gave preferential duty to wines from this area to spite the French. Simply put, the wines were awful in comparison to the Bordeaux that had been shipped to the gentry for centuries. Over time, the Portuguese took to leaving generous amounts of sugar in the wines, and then to fortifying those wines to prevent another fermentation taking place. Eventually, the process of arresting the fermentation by the addition of brandy became a common way to retain the sweetness and the stability. This process is reported to have occurred in 1720. As early as 1756, Port makers realized they had stumbled onto a good thing and the Oporto Wine Company was granted a Royal Charter by the king. Since aging very soon became mandatory to develop the full potential of Port, the vintners experimented with bottle shapes and eventu- ally settled on the square shoulder still in use today. This configuration is ideal to catch the heavy sedimentation thrown by an aging Port.

Today mechanical presses have replaced the traditional human grape stomping, but the vinification process has changed little. The fermentation takes place in hundreds of vineyards far from the aging cellars located in the ocean-port cities. Over a dozen or so grape varietals .are fed into the presses indiscriminately. When fermentation has produced about 6 to 8 percent alcohol, the brandy is added and the quiet wines are placed in 140-gallon oak pipes.

Within a year of fermentation, these wooden pipes are shipped downriver to their aging and blending cellars in Oporto and Vila Nova de Gaia. These aging cellars are called lodges and it is here that the decisions are made concerning the future of the young wines. In very special years, a Vintage Port is made separating out the wines from a single year. Vintage Ports see no more than two years in wood but up to twenty years in glass. The usual procedure is to blend Ports and age them in oak in the manner of Sherry making. As the wine ages, it loses its original purple coloration. The younger wines are sold as Ruby Port, and those with greater age are called Tawny. White Port is produced exclusively from white grapes, but otherwise follows the Port process.

Ports are produced in dozens of wine areas including California and many of the eastern wine-making areas of the United States. Ports are rich, creamy, full-bodied and filling wines that are best sipped and savored. Room temperature is ideal for serving in four-ounce stemmed glassware. Because of their intensity in flavoring, their sweetness at the 12 to 14 percent levels, Ports have fallen in popularity in recent years.

In one sense, aromatized wines have a brief, several-hundred-year history since their formalization in Italy as Vermouth. In another sense, aromatized wines were devised at the earliest stages of ancient wine making. The Greeks flavored their harsh and acidic wines with seawater, herbs and other essences to make them more palatable. Through the Dark Ages, when the skills in wine making were lost, nearly all wines were treated by professional mixers called pigmentarians. Literally, these artisans were skilled in herbal compounding potions that would make spoiled wine at least drinkable.

The term aromatized refers to the period of up to several months during which wines are steeped in dozens of herbs, much like tea is steeped over its leaves. This process separates desirable oils and flavorings which become part of the wine fluid. Brandy alcohol is added, as in other aperitif wines before bottling, to levels of 16 to 20 percent. Italian Vermouth is red, medium sweet and richly aromatic. French-style Vermouth is often white, much drier to the taste, and more lightly aroma- tic. Wormwood is the primary flavoring, but several dozen other herbs are in most Vermouth recipes including such household standbys as nutmeg, cloves, coriander seeds, cinnamon, rose leaves, angelica, camomile, gentian and quinine. Some Vermouths, like Campari, seem closer to liqueurs, so sweet and pleasant to the taste are they.

Other wines in this category emphasize quinine and Jesuit bark, both imparting intense bittering qualities. Favorites in this grouping include Dubonnet, Lillet, and St. Raphael from France.

The commonality of all aperitifs, ranging from the bone-dry and brittle Fino Sherry to the semi-dry and unctuously heavy Dubonnet, lies in the initiation of gastric juices of the consumer, setting in motion appetite, or the desire to eat. For centuries, these herbs have been known to possess these qualities, and the wines thus treated not only tranquilize the consumer with a rather high dose of alcohol but they help that consumer to anticipate the meal more fully.

Since aromatized wines are universally pungent and forceful, experiment with this group cautiously. Most require an open mind and an imaginative palate. Appreciation for these exotic tastes, as well as for their noted physical effects, can be learned with time and patience. For starters, ask for French and Italian Vermouth mixed over ice instead of a cocktail next time you are out to eat. You may be pleasantly surprised. You may also enjoy the meal with unusual gusto.

Do:

Figure out how much room you need for storage (you said 150+ bottles a year, and an average 5 years turn around = 750 bottles) and then TRIPLE IT!

You will always need more space than you think.

It is the fluctuation of temperature that damages wine. If you do not, or can not have active temperature control, insulate, insulate, and insulate some more.

I recommend the mylar/bubble wrap insulation that is becoming more common. It has no nasty glass fibers to worry about, and it gives a good R rating without taking up much volume.

Balance - and above all, balance.

Make sure that most of your wine when you start is for drinking, not aging, or the first year you will be stealing from your future stocks.

Make sure that at least some of the wine in your cellar is for guests. Not just wine for your own tastes.

Make sure that some of your wine is always ready to drink. Keep a balance of maturity as well as variety.

Your tastes will change.

Make sure to leave room for whole new regions and styles of wine. Do not stock too heavily in any one area. See rules 1 and 3.

Make sure you have a great deal of flexibility in your racking.

Nothing worse than buying a case of magnums, or Champagne, or half bottles; only to find that your racks hold single Bordeaux bottles exclusively. Keep in mind that some wines, esp. Bordeaux is best stored in its original wooden. Make sure you have someplace to put these.

Don't:

Don't put your wine near a water heater, or other source of heat. This will bake your wines, even if the temperature is constant.

Don't store your wine in cardboard cases.

The urge to do this is nearly overwhelming. The cardboard draws moisture out of the air, not critical, but not desired. The cardboard will also fall apart, and you can be sure that it will do so while you are moving a case of your favorite wine, and breakage will occur. Styrofoam shipping containers will be the bane of your existence as you collect. Save them, use them. While they do have cardboard on the outside, the styro inserts will nicely protect your finest wines.

Beware of off smells.

Greatly over looked in cellar design, off smells can in some cases permeate the corks of your wine, and from there the wine itself. Do not store paint, thinner or other chemicals near your wine.

Beware of vibration.

When the rules of wine cellars were being formulated, vibration was not an issue. No heavy trucks, or machinery existed. Now a days it doesn't take much to find vibration sources, esp. in a frame house. That laundry machine is a likely culprit. While not disastrous, vibration will keep the wine from aging well, as the process of long chain polymerization will be interrupted.

Don't buy cases of wine you haven't tried first!!! Need I say more?